About the Piece
This recreation is a series of Islamic folded glass beads. In 2002 I acquired a ancient Islamic folded glass bead. I decided that I wanted to recreate this specific Islamic folded bead, because I have the rare opportunity to use primary documentation with my entry. In the photo above, the broken bead is one that I made, and displayed so that the internal structure of my recreations could be seen as well.

Comparison Image Created by Deborah Zinn

Historical Evidence

Islamic folded glass beads appear to have been produced in several different areas of the Middle East, however most glass came to the area from other sources.

These beads were highly sought after and many in rather good condition have been uncovered by archaeologist and treasure-hunters alike. Several examples of extant beads are highlighted here.

Islamic folded glass beads from the collection of J.P. (1)

This is a traditional design for folded glass beads. It has 2 folded areas, with 2 colors, black and white. These beads have been found with as few as two folds up to as many as 10 folds. The beads I have recreated are primarily 2 and 3 fold beads. I chose the smaller number of folds due to my desire to try and reproduce them in as close to a period production style as possible.


Islamic folded glass beads from the collection of J.P (2)

This is a necklace of folded and raked Islamic beads. It is interesting that this entire necklace was found, and utilized a style previously believed to be very modern in arrangement and placing of beads to reflect symmetry and balance in both color and size.

Islamic Folded Glass Bead Reproduction Methods

Given the large number of folded glass beads that have been found, it is believed that these were produced as a commodity for sale. As such, the production of each bead as quickly as possible was part of my goal in recreating the beads. When I began making these beads, each bead took approximately 45 minutes to make. I have improved my time, and now can make one in less than 8 minutes.

There is much debate about how these beads were made in period. One theory centers on the production of canes of twisted and striped glass that are formed into beads. This method requires the construction of striped clay canes. The cane is then folded into a square. The clay on each side on the square is then anchored on the corners, and then the center of the side is rolled toward the center of the square. It is then repeated on each side to form the striations. The center of each side is then pushed into the middle of the square forming a cross. The points of the cross are then folded upwards to form a bead.

This technique requires a significant amount of manipulation by hand, and is made without using a mandrel to form the hole. Also, while the final patterns are similar, the patterns on the beads are very linear, with the final beads resembling raked beads of the same time period.

This technique is extremely efficient and effective for producing reproductions in polymer clay. However, due to the nature of the tools required for working in glass, and the inability to directly manipulate hot glass with my hands, this technique was determined to be unrealistic for the reproductions I wanted to do.

I learned the basic technique for making these beads from Tom Holland at the Bead Expo 2002 (3). After swearing me to secrecy, much like period glass working apprentices, Tom taught me his technique. After further research I found a technique similar to the one I use diagramed by Maud Spaer.(4)

This technique consists of creating a large disk using the base color of glass by heating the glass rod and applying the glass to the mandrel. A stringer (strand of glass of a thinner diameter, usually 2-5mm thick, than the traditional rod size) is then heated and used to apply concentric rings of color to one side of the disk. The entire disk is evenly heated and then folded in half onto the mandrel. This flat bead is then heated while rotating to form a round bead. The area that once was the seam from where it was folded over is then heated and pulled in different directions with a pointed metal rake, similar to a dental pick. The process of forming the pattern distorts the symmetry of the bead, requiring that it be heated while being rotated again to form a round bead. This bead is then placed in an annealing kiln, where it is allowed to return to room temperature over a period of 12 hours.

I’ve found that the techniques I use produce a faithful reproduction, and with even more practice I hope to get my creation time down to a reasonable approximation of production time in period (hopefully, under the 5 minute mark, while still maintaining and improving my quality level). It has taken me one year to conquer this technique. When initially taught, one bead of this style required 45 minutes of torch time. The beads in this entry averaged 8 minutes per bead, with greatly improved quality over my early attempts.

General Glass Bead Making Methods

Ancient beads were often made on cast iron tapered rods, without the use of a separating agent. Once a bead was finished, the rod was heated to red-hot and plunged into a container of salt. This created a chemical reaction, causing the cast iron to rust and the bead could be easily tapped off the rod. While this is a very simple process, I do not recreate it due to health concerns. The desired chemical reaction creates Chlorine gas (mustard gas) which is deadly to human beings.(5)

These beads are made using a Minor bench burner torch and several different tools. Tools used in shaping the glass include metal shaping plates, rakes and picks. Although the tools are made of more modern materials, they are very similar to period tools.

The torch used is a surface mix torch, fueled by oxygen and propane. In period, these bead would have been made in a form of Beehive kiln, similar to the one pictured below:

Kiln of Maccus ðe Glæswyrhta (6)

While this particular kiln is a recreation of a Viking kiln, it is widely believed that similar kilns were in use throughout the world. A bellows system was used to drive air and create a hotter fire, and the beads would have been allowed to cool slowly in the ashes of the fire so that they would not shock. Since I have not made my own kiln yet, I annealed my beads using a modern kiln designed for bead making.

Materials

These beads are made using Effetre glass from Murano, Italy. Effetre is a soda lime glass, and the closest commercially available glass to period, which is considered a “soft” glass. The co-efficient of expansion is 104-113.

Glass is a created substance, made by heating a metal or metalloid to above the melting point and cooling it below that point without letting it crystallize. Most ancient glass was composed of silica (quartz sand), and a “flux” agent, usually soda (Na2O) or potash (Ka2O). A stabilizer is also required, usually in the form of lime (CaO). It is believed that most glassmakers of the time were unaware of the need for a stabilizer, as lime was a common element in sand. Without a stabilizer, the glass would dissolve in water.(7)

When glass is initially made, its natural color is a pale, translucent green. The addition of colorants (usually metal oxides) and opacifiers (mostly antimony, arsenic or tin) produced opaque and colored glass.(8) This project used opaque glass, primarily in black, yellow and red.

References

(1) JP. Early Trade Beads from Mali. http://users.skynet.be/jpwhome/islamic_glass.htm
(2) Ibid.
(3) Holland, Tom. Lecture and Practicum at the Bead Expo, 2002. Santa Fe, NM.
(4) Spaer, Maude. Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum: Beads and other Small Objects. The Israel Musuem, Jerusalem. 2001. p.104.
(5) Holland, Tom. Lecture and Practicum at the Bead Expo, 2002. Santa Fe, NM.
(6) Williamson, Roland. Maccus ðe Glæswyrhta. http://www.regia.org/maccus
(7) Francis, Peter. Asia’s Maritime Bead Trade. University of Hawai’i Press. 2002 p. 11, 222.
(8) Ibid, p.10-11