The original piece this is based off of can be seen in Ancient Glass in the Isreal Museum, writen by Maude Spaer.
copyright 2005
Jhan A. Knebel
rixende@gmail.com
About the Piece
This piece is a replica of a Roman period die. I decided to try this item to challenge myself to produce a glass item “off-mandrel.” This is quite challenging, as you have only a gather of molten glass to work with, without the benefit of a rod to stabilize the glass. Also, I have found no existing manuscripts that explain the production method of these dice, so it was also a challenge to determine how they could be made.
I enjoyed making these dice, and I look forward to working off-mandrel again.
| Recreations: | ||
| First 2: Failures | Second 2: Experiments | Third 2: Successes? |
Success (Better pictures forthcoming of this die)
Historical Evidence
Dice have a long history as an implement of gaming, gambling and divination. The predecessor of dice was astragali, which were the heel bones of sheep used for both divination and gaming. Eventually these astragali were manufactured out of glass, as well as the continued use of bone.
Gradually, over thousands of years, astragali were replaced by dice, and by the Roman era they have become commonplace. Sophocles claimed that dice were created by Palamedes as a way for the troops to pass the time during the siege of Troy . Herodotus attributed them to the Lydians. However, both of them are incorrect because examples of dice have been found predating both of these occurrences.
Almost as long as dice have been around people have tried to cheat at dice. Given the handmade nature of dice, it is almost impossible to create “perfect” dice. Each dice would have a natural bias to certain numbers.
These dice are replicas of an extant die that has been dated to the Roman Period (30 BCE – 640 CE) and are believed to be most likely of Egyptian origin.
The picture of this die can be found on plate 41, page 374 in Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum , which is on display next to my entry.
Glass Dice Reproduction Methods
These dice are made using a Minor bench burner torch and several different tools. Tools used in shaping the glass include graphite paddles and hemostats.
I first melted a gather of glass, which was shaped into a basic cube shape using graphite paddles. Once shaped, the yellow dots are applied, excluding the one. Then the red dots are applied on top of the yellow dots. Once all but the ones are done, the dice is melted away from the original rod of glass, which is replaced by a pair of hemostats. I then applied the yellow and red dots to the ones side. The spot where the glass rod was attached is melted into the die, and then the entire piece is placed in the kiln. (Please refer to the video playing on the computer to see the production process.)
The torch used is a surface mix torch, fueled by oxygen and propane. In period, these dice could have been made in a form of Beehive kiln. This type of kiln is a Viking kiln, it is widely believed that similar kilns were in use throughout the world. A bellows system was used to drive air and create a hotter fire, and the beads would have been allowed to cool slowly in the ashes of the fire so that they would not shock. Since I have not made my own kiln yet, I annealed my beads using a modern kiln designed for bead making.
Materials
These dice are made using Effetre glass from Murano , Italy . Effetre is a soda lime glass, and the closest commercially available glass to period, which is considered a “soft” glass. The co-efficient of expansion is 104-113.
This project used opaque glass, primarily in black, yellow and red.
Ancient Glass
Glass is a created substance, made by heating a metal or metalloid to above the melting point and cooling it below that point without letting it crystallize. Most ancient glass was composed of silica (quartz sand), and a “flux” agent, usually soda (Na 2 O) or potash (Ka 2 O). A stabilizer is also required, usually in the form of lime (CaO). It is believed that most glassmakers of the time were unaware of the need for a stabilizer, as lime was a common element in sand. Without a stabilizer, the glass would dissolve in water.
When glass is initially made, its natural color is a pale, translucent green. The addition of colorants (usually metal oxides) and opacifiers (mostly antimony, arsenic or tin) produced opaque and colored glass.
I have been unable to find any texts specifically addressing Egyptian glass manufacturing techniques of this time period. However, there are surviving Cuneiform texts documenting the process for making glass in the Mesopotamian Region. These tablet fragments were found in the library of King Assurbanipal (668-627 BCE ) assembled in his palace in Nineveh .
I have included excerpts of these texts giving the recipes for red and yellow glass. All references I have currently found in this text to black glass has referred to it as “black” anzahhu, which translates to “primary glass”. I have two theories on why this is not included. The first theory being that the cuneiform tablets where the recipe was included were destroyed, or on one of the missing fragments. The second theory is that the production of anzahhu was so basic a concept, that the instructions were not included in this advanced text.
Definition of terms for glass recipes:
• Atunu - kiln
• Tersitu – a primary glass
• Tarabanu – an ingredient
• Saddu- an unknown qualification
• Busu – a primary glass
• Anzahhu – a primary glass
• Serserru – a colored glass
• Leru – ochre or orpiment
• Dusu – yellow glass
• Naga – a plant and the alkali produced from its ashes
• Dabtu- pan
• Immanakku- sand
• Mina- unit of measurement 1 mina = 0.9463 pounds
• Shekel – unit of measurement 1 shekel – 0.4 ounces
• Hashaltu – an ingredient (unable to determine what it is)
• Parutu – “stone” describes a texture or property of the glass resembling the parutu stone
• Zuku – a primary glass
Recipe for red stone colored glass from the Cuneiform Tablets:
For each mina of zuku-glass (you take) ten shekels of lead, fifteen shekels of copper, half (zuzu) a shekel of anzahhu – glass (and) <half a shekel> of antimony. This is the material for Assyrian (A.BAR) red-stone glass.
For each mina of zuku-glass (you take) one-sixth (shekel of lead, ten shekels of copper, one shekel of antimony, one shekel of anzahhu – glass. This is the material for Akkadian red-stone glass.
(While each of these two batches is melting in their crucibles) you remove (them) twice (from the immediate heat of the fire.) When you take them out the third time you throw on it hashaltu and you take it completely out (of the kiln), but you pour it again (into another crucible) aand it should come (again) to a boil, and if it (looks like) parutu-stone when you inspect the product (literally: the baked mass) do not worry. You take equal parts of the Assyrian and Akkadian red-stone glasses and let them fuse into each other and after you have let them fuse into each other and it (the glass) is (still) hot you pour into the fused mass, for each mina, one and one half shekels of zuku-glass, seven and one half shekels of anzahhu-glass, seven and one half shekels of copper, seven and one half shekels of lead (all of) which you have ground finely in one operation. You remove (the batch composed of these constituents) only once (from the immediate heat) and then take it out (of the kiln) and allow it to cool off. (During this operation) the (smoke produced?) should be….and clear and your fire should be going strong (literally: high). You pour (the mixture into another crucible) and scatter on it “cumin-seed”-stone and……You test the glass (as to it viscosity) with the tip of your tongs and lower and raise (?) (the crucible as it is necessary). (Then) You allow the product to cool off. You inspect it and if the dipu-holes (show) partutu- texture/color do not worry (because) inside the clay cover is indeed red-stone glass.
If (with) this red-stone glass inside the clay cover, “copper dust” and “copper exudation” form, you mix into it ten shekels of zuku- glass, one-twelfth (shekel) of copper, one-twelfth of lead, one-twelfth of anzahhu-glass – (but) do not bring in any antimony – per mina (of glass) and (then) inspect it. During the mixing-in you do…and (then) you remove it.
Recipe for Yellow colored glass from the Cuneiform Tablets:
If you want to produce dusu, you grind finely, separately, […] [x mina of] naga, [x mina of immanak]ku together in half a mina [of…]. [You mix them] together. [You place the mixture into a] cold [kiln which has] four fire openings and you arrange (the mixture) between its openings. You keep [a good] and smokeless [fire] burning. [As soon as the mixture(?)] begins to glow green you set (it) nearer to the fire. After it has been glowing green you take it out and let it cool off. You grind it finely [again]. [You collect (the powder)] in a clean dabtu. [You put] (it) into a cold chamber kiln. You keep a good and smokeless fire burning. As soon as (the mixture) glows yellow you stir it once “towards you.” You will see some drops form (at the tip of the rake) and when the glass is homogenous and has assumed the color of the genuine dusu stone.
Bibliography
Spaer, Maude. Ancient Glass in the Israel Museum : Beads and other Small Objects. The Israel Musuem, Jerusalem . 2001.
Von Salden, et al. Glass and Glassmaking in Ancient Mesopotamia . The Corning Museum of Glass Press. 1988.
Williamson, Roland. Maccus ðe Glæswyrhta. http://www.regia.org/maccus
Dice Play: History.
http://homepage.ntlworld.com/dice-play/History.htmMeasurement Conversion Calculator http://www.convertit.com/Go/Maps/Measurement/Converter.ASP
Convert me.com
http://www.convert-me.com/en/convert/units/weight/weight.bibshekel.en.html
Footnotes